Performing Ogaranya: Kalu Ezelu Uwaoma, Male Slavery, and Freedom Politics in Southeastern Nigeria, c. 1860–1940

E. Isichei, The Ibo and the Europeans: The Genesis of a Relationship—to 1906 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1973); F. Ekechi, “Colonialism and Christianity in West Africa: The Igbo Case, 1900–1915,” Journal of African History 12, 1 (1971), 103–15; D. Ohadike, “The Decline of Slavery among the Igbo,” in The End of Slavery in Africa, ed. R. Roberts and S. Miers (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 443–57; G. Cole, The Krio of West Africa: Islam, Culture, Creolization and Colonialism in the Nineteenth Century (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013); I. Sundiata, From Slavery to Neoslavery: The Bight of Biafra and Fernando Po in the Era of Abolition, 1827 – 1930 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996); A. Afigbo, “The Warrant Chief System in Eastern Nigeria: Direct or Indirect Rule,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 3, no. 4 (June 1967): 683–700.

Nwando Achebe, Farmers, Traders, Warriors and Kings: Female Power and Authority in Northern Igboland, 1900–1960 (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005); I. Amadiume, Male Daughters, Female Husbands: Gender and Sex in an African Society (London: Zed Books, 1989), 119–23; Nina Mba, Nigerian Women Mobilized: Women’s Political Activity in Southern Nigeria, 1900–1965 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982), 37–89.

Nwando Achebe, The Female King of Colonial Nigeria: Ahebi Ugbabe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011).

Ohadike, “Decline,” 451. Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City: Lagos, 1760–1900 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 12–16, likewise argues that Lagos’ oligarchic “big men and women” broke down when they lost control of trade, labor, and credit, whereas slaves saw increasing capitalist opportunities.

Meredith McKittrick, “Forsaking the Fathers? Colonialism, Christianity, and Coming of Age in Ovamboland, Northern Namibia,” in Men and Masculinities in Modern Africa, ed. L. Lindsay and S. Miescher (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003), 33–51; Gregory Mann, “Old Soldiers, Young Men: Masculinity, Islam, and Military Veterans in Late 1950s Soudan Français (Mali),” in Lindsay and Miescher, Men and Masculinities, 69–86.

P. Obiani, “The Stigmatization of the Descendants of Slaves in Igboland,” in Repercussions of the Atlantic Slave Trade: The Interior of the Bight of Biafra and the African Diaspora, ed. C. Brown and P. Lovejoy (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2010), 321–28; T. Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa: Toward Emancipation in Nineteenth Century Senegal and the Gold Coast (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010); J. F. Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce: The Senegal River Valley, 1700 – 1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); P. Haenger, Slaves and Slave Holders on the Gold Coast: Towards an Understanding of Social Bondage in West Africa (Basel, Switzerland: P. Schlettwein, 2000); M. Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); A. L. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895 – 1930 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997); G. McSheffrey, “Slavery, Indentured Servitude, Legitimate Trade, and the Impact of Abolition in the Gold Coast, 1874–1910,” Journal of African History 24, no. 3 (1983), 349–68.

R. C. Njoku, “‘Ogaranya’ (Wealthy Men) in Late Nineteenth Century Igboland: Chief Igwebe Odum of Arondizuogu, c. 1860–1940,” African Economic History, 36 (2008), 27–52.

Roberts and Miers, End, 38; C. Robertson and M. Klein (eds.), Women and Slavery in Africa (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997).

C. Robertson, “Post-Proclamation Slavery in Accra: A Female Affair?” in Robertson and Klein, Women, 220–45.

D. Paton and P. Scully, “Introduction,” in Gender and Slave Emancipation in the Atlantic World (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 26.

S. Peabody, “Negresse, Mulatresse, Citoyenne: Gender and Emancipation in the Caribbean,” in Paton and Scully, Gender, 56–78.

M. Klein and R. Roberts, “Gender and Emancipation in French West Africa,” in Paton and Scully, Gender, 162–80; C. Brown and P. Curtin (eds.), Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006); J. G. Landers and B. M. Robinson (eds.), Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006).

C. Brown, “The Arming of Slaves in Comparative Perspective,” in Brown and Curtin, Arming, 330–53.

P. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 258–69; J. Thornton, “Armed Slaves and Political Authority in Africa in the Era of the Slave Trade, 1450–1800” in Brown and Curtin, Arming, 79–94; A. Isaacman and D. Peterson, “Making the Chikunda: Military Slavery and Ethnicity in Southern Africa,” in Brown and Curtin, Arming, 95–119.

Ohadike, “Decline,” 451.

J. Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 7.

E. Kalu, “An Ibo Autobiography: The Autobiography of Mr. Eke Kalu, Ohaffia’s Well-honored Son,” Nigerian Field 7, no. 4 (1938), 158–70.

S. E. Greene, West African Narratives of Slavery: Texts from Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Ghana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 4–7; M. Wright, Strategies of Slaves and Women: Life-Stories from East/Central Africa (New York: Lilian Barber, 1993); Haenger, Slaves, 181–91; E. Alpers, “The Story of Swema: Female Vulnerability in Nineteenth Century East Africa,” in Robertson and Klein, Women, 185–219.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 161.

S. Miescher, Making Men in Ghana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 2, 48, 58, 80, 138, 150, 199; British National Archives (BNA), CO520/124, April–May 1913; G. Johnston, Of God and Maxim Guns: Presbyterianism in Nigeria, 1846 – 1966 (Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1988), 33, 84, 221; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166–7; G. Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40: A Study in Church Developments in Eastern Nigeria,” Bulletin of the Society for African Church History 2, no. 2 (1966): 148.

Joyce Lowe, “A Brief History of The Nigerian Field Society, 1930–2001,” Nigerian Field 66 (2001), 147–63.

M. Ndukwe, “From Slavery to the Order of British Empire: A Biography of Chief Eke Kalu Uwaoma of Ohafia” (M.A. thesis, University of Nigeria, October 1998), 59–60; Interview with Chief Udensi Ekea, Okon Ohafia, August 4, 2010; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe, Elu Ohafia, August 10, 2010; Interview with Arunsi Kalu, Amangwu Ohafia, August 15, 2011; Interview with Chief Olua Iro Kalu, August 3, 2010; Interview with Chief Kevin Ukiro, August 10, 2010.

Amadiume, Male Daughters, 55–57; Lisa Lindsay, “‘No Need . . . to Think of Home’? Masculinity and Domestic Life on the Nigerian Railway, c. 1940–61,” Journal of African History 39, no. 3 (1998), 439–66; M. Twaddle, Kakungulu and the Creation of Uganda, 1868 – 1928 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1993); John Illife, Africans: The History of a Continent (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 94.

M. Ferme, The Underneath of Things: Violence, History, and the Everyday in Sierra Leone (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001), 6,18–19,165, 226; A. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame (Boston: Beacon Press, 2005), 160.

Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa (New York: NY, Praeger, 1967).

A. Njoku, “Before the Middle Passage: Igbo Slave Journeys to Old Calabar and Bonny,” in Brown and Lovejoy, Repercussions, 67.

See P. Russell, “Life’s Illusions: The ‘Art’ of Critical Biography,” Journal of Women’s History 21, no. 4 (2009): 154; J. Cooper, “Conception, Conversation, and Comparison: My Experiences as a Biographer,” in Writing Biography: Historians and Their Craft, ed. L. E. Ambrosius (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 83–87.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 158.

Ohadike, “Decline,” 455.

O. N. Njoku, “Inter-Village Trade in Ohafia, 1900–1979” (University of Nigeria Senate Paper, August 1981), 30; Interview with Ikenga Ibe, Amuma, November 26, 2011; Interview with Kalu Awa, Ufiele Village, October 27, 2011; Interview with Anaso Awalekwa, Ndea-Nku, November 17, 2011; Interview with Ogbuka Abaa, Isiuwgu, December 12, 2011.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 159–60; Interview with Tessy Uzoma, Amangwu, September 5, 2011; Interview with Grace Emehe, Amangwu, September 10, 2011.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 159.

“The Horrors of Fetish Worship,” Daily Telegraph Supplement, June 24 (1899), 6.

FO 84/975, “Slave Trade: Bight of Biafra, Jan.–Dec. 1855,” 211; FO 84/1001, “Slave Trade,” 68–72, 163, 169, 306–7, 312–6; CO583/48, Dispatches, August 10–September 30, 1916, 49–54; A.J.H. Latham, Old Calabar, 1600 – 1891: The Impact of the International Economy upon a Traditional Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), 106; Kole, Krio, 21–37; Sundiata, From Slavery, 23, 68–73.

Roberts and Miers, “Introduction,” in Robertson and Klein, End of Slavery, 33–38.

Interview with Davidson Kalu Oki, Okon, August 5, 2010; Interview with Kalu Uko, Okon, September 20, 2011; Interview with Elders of Nde Nbila, Okon, September 15, 2011; Interview with Elders of Nde Oka, Okon, September 14, 2011.

V. C. Uchendu, The Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College, 1965), 81.

G. I. Jones, Annual Reports of Bende Division, South Eastern Nigeria, 1905 – 1912 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 4–5; BNA, “CO583/49, Nigeria Original Correspondence, October–November, 1916.”

Three times the contemporary local market value of male slaves. BNA, CO520/8, “Southern Nigeria Original Correspondence, May-August, 1901,” 570–4.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 160–2.

Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Olua Kalu; Interview with Kevin Ukiro; Interview with Ndukwe Otta and Elder Uduma Uka, September 16, 2011; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Arunsi Kalu; Interview with Eke Emetu Kalu, Elu Ohafia, August 11, 2010; Interview with Emeh Okonkwo, Ebem Ohafia, August 3, 2010; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with K.K. Owen, Elu Ohafia, August 12, 2010; J. C. McCall, Dancing Histories: Heuristic Ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 80; F. K. Ekechi, Tradition and Transformation in Eastern Nigeria: A Sociopolitical History of Owerri and its Hinterland, 1902 – 1947 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1989), 145–6; R. C. Njoku, African Cultural Values: Igbo Political Leadership in Colonial Nigeria, 1900 – 1966 (New York: Routledge, 2006), 19–21.

Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Olua Kalu; Interview with Kevin Ukiro; Interview with Ndukwe Otta and Elder Uduma Uka; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Arunsi Kalu; Interview with Eke Emetu Kalu; Interview with Emeh Okonkwo; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with K.K. Owen; McCall, Dancing, 147; Njoku, African Cultural Values, 19–21; C. Azuonye, “The Heroic Age of the Ohafia Igbo,” Geneve-Afrique 28, no. 1 (1990): 14.

Njoku, Ohafia, 64; N. Uka, “A Note on the ‘Abam’ Warriors of Igbo Land,” Ikenga: Journal of African Studies 6 (1972): 78; McCall, Dancing, 80; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Arunsi Kalu; Interview with Eke Emetu; Interview with Emeh Okonkwo.

Njoku, Ohafia, 54; McCall, Dancing, 59–69; P.O. Nsugbe, Ohaffia: A Matrilineal Ibo People (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974) , 34; Interview with Davidson Kalu Oki; Interview with Oluka Mba, Nde-Ibe, November 3, 2011.

Azuonye, “Heroic,” 32; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with Torti Kalu, Amuma, November 26, 2011.

D. Northrup, Trade Without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 208–11; Miescher, Making, 11.

Nigeria National Archives Ibadan (NAI) CSO 26/3/29196, C. J. Mayne, “Intelligence Report on the Ohafia Clan, 1934,” 44; Interview with Eke Emetu Kalu; Interview with Kalu Awa; Njoku, Ohafia, 63; Uka, “A Note,” 78.

Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Emeh Okonkwo; Interview with Oluka Mba; Uka, “A Note,” 78.

Njoku, Ohafia, 64; E. O. Arua, “Yam Ceremonies and the Values of Ohafia Culture,” Africa: The Journal of the International African Institute 51, no. 2 (1981): 695; Uka, “A Note,” 77–79.

Miescher, Making, 138; Lindsay and Miescher, “Introduction,” in Men, 4–5; Mayne, “Intelligence,” 45; Uka, “A Note,” 78; Azuonye, “Heroic,” 23; Interview with Ogbonne Kalu, Uduma Ukwu Village, November 17, 2011; Interview with Mecha Ukpai, Amangwu Village, August 18, 2011; Interview with Arunsi Kalu; Interview with Ikenga Ibe.

Northrup, Trade, 119; Njoku, Ohafia, 63–64; U. Nwokeji, “African Conceptions of Gender and the Slave Traffic,” William and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001): 62–63; U. Nwokeji, “The Atlantic Slave Trade and Population Density: A Historical Demography of the Biafran Hinterland,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 34, no. 3 (2000): 625–6; Interview with Uduma Ogbuagu; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Kalu Awa.

BNA, CO520/8, “Southern Nigeria Original Correspondence, May to August, 1901,” 570–4; P. Lovejoy and D. Richardson, “Competing Markets for Male and Female Slaves: Prices in the Interior of West Africa, 1750–1850,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 28 (1995): 261–93; Nwokeji, “African,” 49–53; Interview with Anaso Awalekwa; Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Mecha Ukpai; Interview with Arunsi Kalu; Interview with Kevin Ukiro.

National Library of Scotland (NLS), the Missionary Record of the United Presbyterian Church, November 1886; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with Oluka Mba; Interview with Idika Aso, Asaga, August 10, 2010; G. I. Jones, “Ohaffia Obu Houses,” The Nigerian Field: The Journal of the Nigerian Field Society 6, no. 4 (1937): 170–1; J. C. McCall, “Portrait of a Brave Woman,” American Anthropologist 98, no. 1 (1996): 127–36; Njoku, Ohafia, 45.

A. G. Leonard, “Notes of a Journey to Bende,” Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 14 (1898): 196–7; Interview with Torti Kalu; Interview with Kalu Ibem, Amuma, November 26, 2011; Interview with Godwin Nwankwo Uko, Amankwu, December 10, 2011; Interview with Nwabueze Kalu, Isiuwgu, December 10, 2011.

R. Sparks, The Two Princes of Calabar: An Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Odyssey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 54–58.

BNA, FO 84/1001, “Slave Trade: West Coast of Africa, Bight of Biafra, January–December 1856,” 312–3; D. Offiong, “The Status of Slaves in Igbo and Ibibio of Nigeria,” Phylon 46, no. 1 (1985): 55.

BNA, CO520/8, May-Aug. 1901, 574; Interview with Arunsi Kalu; Interview with Oluka Mba; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with Idika Aso; Interview with Udensi Ekea. Elite polygyny and concubinage rose dramatically between 1880 and 1920. See Jones, Annual, 70; N. Musisi, “Women, Elite Polygyny, and Buganda State Formation,” Signs 16 (1991): 757–86; Nwokeji, “African,” 65; Mayne, “Intelligence,” 50–59.

BNA, CO520/8, May–August 1901, 573–4; BNA, CO520/36, June–August 1906, 170–84; A. Afigbo, The Abolition of the Slave Trade in Southeastern Nigeria, 1885 – 1950 (New York: University of Rochester Press, 2006), 42; Ohadike, “Decline,” 443; Uchendu, Igbo, 89; N. Achebe, “When Deities Marry: Indigenous ‘Slave’ Systems Expanding and Metamorphosing in the Igbo Hinterland,” in African Systems of Slavery, ed. J. Spaulding and S. Beswick (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2010), 105–33; Obiani, “Stigmatization,” 321–8; J. McCall, “The Atlantic Slave Trade and the Ohafia Warrior Tradition: Global Forces and Local Histories,” in Brown and Lovejoy, Repercussions, 75–76. Richard Morrisey, the divisional officer of Cross River reported in 1901 that in the Igbo and Ibibio communities on both sides of the Cross River, at the death of ogaranya individuals, sometimes 100 captives were sacrificed. Eradicating human sacrifice was a recurrent justification for British Bende-Onitsha hinterland expedition (1905–7).

Interview with Idika Aso; Interview with Kevin Ukiro; Interview with Arunsi Kalu.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 162.

L. T. Chubb, “Assessment Reports: Bende Division, 1927–1929,” in Jones, Annual, 58–59; Njoku, “Inter-Village,” 28; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 31.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 163–4; J. C. Anene, Southern Nigeria in Transition, 1885 – 1906 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 231.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 160–2; Njoku, Ohafia, 71.

Jones, Annual, 8–9; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 164; Johnston, Of God, 35; CO520/31, June–August 1905, 387–528; NLS, United Free Church of Scotland (UFC), “The Recent Expedition Against the Aros,” Missionary Record 1, no. 164 (1902): 453; D. MacAlister, “Aro Country, Southern Nigeria,” Scottish Geographical Magazine 18 (1902): 634.

CO520/8, May–August, 1901, 717–22; UFC, For. No. 16, MS.7672, Letter from Jan Buchanan to Robert Collins dated September 26, 1901; UFC, “The Recent Expedition Against the Aros,” 453; Johnston, Of God, 26; Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 139–43; Jones, Annual, 48; O. Kalu, “The River Highway: Christianizing the Igbo,” in A Century and Half of Presbyterian Witness in Nigeria, 1846 – 1996, ed. O. Kalu (Lagos, Nigeria: Ida-Ivory Press, 1996), 55.

Chubb, “Assessment,” 6; Jones, Annual, 36; Njoku, “Inter-Village,” 29; Interview with Uduma Ogbuagu, Amuke, November 24, 2011; Interview with Ezie Uka Uduma Uka, Akanu-Ukwu, November 2, 2011.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 164.

Interview with Olua Kalu; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Njoku, Ohafia, 96–97.

A.E. Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in South-Eastern Nigeria, 1891 – 1929 (London: Longman, 1972), 6–7, 37, 80; O. Ikime, “Reconstructing Indirect Rule: The Nigerian Example,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 4, no. 3 (1968): 421–38; I. M. Okonjo, British Administration in Nigeria, 1900–1950 (New York: NOK Publishers, 1974); Jones, Annual, 27, 59–61; Njoku, Ohafia, 104.

W. A. C. Cockburn, “Annual Report on Bende District for the Year Ended 31st December, 1910,” 68–84; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 164–5; Kalu, “River,” 70–71; Jones, Annual, 88.

Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 140; Njoku, Ohafia, 113.

Cockburn, “Annual,” 68–84; Njoku, Ohafia, 106.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 165.

Jones, Annual, 50.

Johnston, Of God, 42–43; Kalu, “River,” 70–71; Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Kalu Awa.

United Presbyterian Church (UPC), West Africa, MS. 7793, Collins Robert, Missionary in Calabar, Letter from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 8 April 1921, 70–71; UPC, West Africa, MS. 7793, Collins Robert, Missionary in Calabar, Letter from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 24 November 1924, 76; UPC, West Africa, MS. 7793, Collins Robert, Missionary in Calabar, Letter from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 5 August 1925, 148.

NLS, UFC, Foreign No. 21, MS. 7676, Letters from Valentine to Collins, 10 August and 31 December 1910, 179, 357; Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 140; Interview with Agwu Kalu, Amaekpu, 18 May 2012; Kalu, “River,” 71.

NLS, UPC, West Africa, MS. 7793, Letters from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 14 July and 17 July 1920, 29–32; UPC, West Africa, MS. 7793, Letter from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 28 September 1920, 39–40; UPC, West Africa, MS. 7793, Letter from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 16 September 1921, 98–99; UPC, West Africa, MS. 7793, Letter from Collins, Robert to Mr. Ashcroft, 21 February 1925, 106; Interview with K.K. Owen; Interview with Agwu Kalu; Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 144; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 34–35, 59–60; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166; Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Kalu Awa.

Jones, Annual, 54.

Chubb, “Assessment.”

Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Ogbuka Abaa; Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 144.

Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 143; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 35; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166–7.

Jones, Annual, 26.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166; Njoku, “Inter-Village,” 30; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 40–56; Interview with Ogbuka Abaa.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 164; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with K. K. Owen.

Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 40–41; Njoku, Ohafia, 118; Interview with K.K. Owen.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 41; Interview with K. K. Owen.

Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 144; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 49–50; Njoku, Ohafia, 117; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 162.

Ibid., 164.

Jones, Annual, 27; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 23; Interview with Godwin Uko.

F. Hives, “Intelligence Report: Bende-Onitsha Hinterland Expedition, 1905,” in Jones, Annual, 62–67.

Cockburn, “Annual.”

Interview with Godwin Uko; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Ikenga Ibe; Interview with Oluka Mba.

Isichei, History, 105.

Mayne, “Intelligence,” 68.

Ibid., 13.

Njoku, Ohafia, 103.

Mayne, “Intelligence,” 68–69.

Chubb, “Assessment,” 17.

BNA, CO583/159/12, “Introduction of Direct Taxation in Southern Provinces, 1928;” Mayne, “Intelligence,” 69; Chubb, “Assessment,” Minute No. 69/1927.

Chubb, “Assessment,” 6.

Ibid., 8.

Mayne, “Intelligence,” 69.

Njoku, Ohafia, 117.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166.

Chubb, “Assessment,” 7–17; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 61–64; Interview with Uche Anya Elekwa; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 166–7; Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 63; Interview with Uche Anya Elekwa; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Johnston, “Ohafia 1911–40,” 148.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 167.

Lindsay and Miescher, “Introduction,” 6.

Mann, “Old Soldiers,” 69–86.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 164–7.

NAE, UMPROF 5/1/90, “Arochukwu-Bende- Afikpo Road, 1921;” Kalu, “An Ibo,” 168–9.

Interview with Peter Nnate Eke Kalu, Elu Ohafia, July 23, 2014.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 167–70.

Uchendu, Igbo, 14.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 168.

Interview with Udensi Ekea; Interview with Kalu Awa; Interview with Godwin Uko; Interview with Anaso Awalekwa; Interview with Ogbuka Abaa; Interview with Uche Anya Elekwa, Ohafia, August 14, 2010; Interview with Agbai Ndukwe; Interview with Ucha Oji Iwe, Elu Ohafia, October 25, 2011; Kalu, “An Ibo,” 168.

Ndukwe, “From Slavery,” 61.

Kalu, “An Ibo,” 170.

S. Miers and I. Kopytoff, “Introduction,” in Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, ed. S. Miers and I. Kopytoff (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977); Spaulding and Beswick, African.

L. Matory, Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism, and Matriarchy in the Afro-Brazilian Candomble (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 149; J. Glassman, “The Bondsman’s New Clothes: The Contradictory Consciousness of Slave Resistance on the Swahili Coast,” Journal of African Studies 32, no. 2 (1991): 280–4.

John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 274–300; Walter Hawthorne, “‘Being Now, as it were, One Family’: Shipmate Bonding on the Slave Vessel Emilia, in Rio de Janeiro and Throughout the Atlantic World,” Luso-Brazilian Review 45, no. 1 (2008): 50–55; James Sweet, Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 20.